This is a working overview of creatine, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-07-08. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid that occurs in vertebrate muscle and other tissues. The monohydrate designation refers to the water included in the crystal lattice, not to water added during manufacturing. Its chemical formula is commonly written as C4H9N3O2·H2O. The solid is typically a white, odorless powder with low solubility in water at room temperature. It is one of several creatine forms described in scientific and commercial literature.
The compound was identified in the nineteenth century after chemists isolated a nitrogenous substance from meat extracts. Later work established its role in muscle energy metabolism and its conversion to phosphocreatine. Chemical synthesis of creatine followed, and industrial production made the monohydrate widely available as a purified powder. Interest expanded in the late twentieth century when researchers began studying creatine supplementation and muscle physiology. Historical accounts sometimes differ on exact dates and attributions, but the broad sequence from tissue extracts to synthetic production is well documented.
In the body, creatine is obtained from dietary meat and fish and is also synthesized from arginine, glycine, and methionine. Muscle stores creatine and phosphocreatine, which participate in the rapid regeneration of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense activity. The monohydrate form is used in research because it is chemically defined, stable as a dry solid, and relatively inexpensive to produce. Questions remain about whether other creatine forms offer meaningful advantages in absorption or tissue retention, and findings vary across studies and populations.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one molecule of water. Its systematic name is N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine monohydrate, and it appears as a white, odorless powder with limited solubility in water. The monohydrate is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is stable under dry conditions. The anhydrous form lacks the water of crystallization and differs slightly in molar mass. Both forms participate in the same biochemical reactions once dissolved.
In the body, creatine is synthesized from the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine, primarily in the liver and kidneys. It is transported to muscle and other tissues, where it is phosphorylated to phosphocreatine by creatine kinase. This phosphagen system provides a rapid source of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense contractions. Dietary creatine comes mainly from meat and fish, and the body's total pool is influenced by both synthesis and intake.
As a supplement, creatine monohydrate is studied for its effects on muscle performance and recovery. The compound is often described as an ergogenic aid, meaning it may support physical work capacity. Research typically compares it with placebo or other forms, such as citrate or nitrate, under controlled conditions. Questions remain about the optimal dose and long-term effects in different populations, and findings are not uniform across all studies. The monohydrate form remains the most extensively tested.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical formula | C4H9N3O2·H2O | Monohydrate includes one water molecule per creatine molecule |
| Molar mass | 149.15 g/mol | Value for the monohydrate; anhydrous creatine is about 131.13 g/mol |
| Appearance | White crystalline powder | Odorless or nearly odorless in purified form |
| Solubility in water | About 13 g/L at 25 °C | Solubility increases with temperature and varies with pH |
| Common synonyms | Creatine hydrate; N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine | Monohydrate distinguishes it from anhydrous creatine |
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== Genes == There are two major forms of the GNRHR, each encoded by a separate gene (GNRHR and GNRHR2). Alternative splicing of the GNRHR gene, GNRHR, results in multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms. More than 18 transcription initiation sites in the 5' region and multiple polyA signals in the 3' region have been identified for GNRHR.
==== Thalidomide ==== Despite the therapeutic potential of anti-angiogenesis drugs, they can also be harmful when used inappropriately. Thalidomide is one such antiangiogenic agent. Thalidomide was given to pregnant women to treat nausea. However, when pregnant women take an antiangiogenic agent, the developing fetus will not form blood vessels properly, thereby preventing the proper development of fetal limbs and circulatory systems. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, thousands of children were born with deformities, most notably phocomelia, as a consequence of thalidomide use.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
William Henry Vanderbilt* (1841), eldest son of Cornelius Vanderbilt; president of the New York Central Railroad, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway, Canada Southern Railway, and Michigan Central Railroad Robert Morrison Olyphant (1842), heir to trading company Olyphant & Co. and president of the Delaware and Hudson Railway Charles Carow* (1844), businessman son of shipping magnate Isaac Carow, father of first lady Edith Carow Roosevelt Frederic W. Rhinelander (1847), 3rd president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art William Backhouse Astor Jr. (1849), son of William Backhouse Astor Sr. and husband of Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor, co-founder of The Four Hundred list of socialites and Florida Yacht Club Robert L. Cutting Jr. (1856), banker and clubman, son of Robert L. Cutting '30 George Lovett Kingsland (1856), merchant and railroad executive, son of New York City mayor Ambrose Kingsland Goold H. Redmond (1857), banker and sportsman Charles Henry Marshall (1858), businessman, former commissioner of Docks and Ferries of the City of New York, grandfather of publisher Marshall Field IV John Crosby Brown (1859), heir to investment bank Brown Bros. & Co., which later became Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., the oldest private bank in the U.S. Emory McClintock (1859), actuary; president of the American Mathematical Society and the Actuarial Society of America Robert Goelet (1860), real estate developer Rutherfurd Stuyvesant (1863), socialite, heir to the Stuyvesant family fortune J.
In June 1998, Caldwell Dyson was selected by NASA, and began NASA training two months later, in August 1998. Her astronaut candidate training included orientation briefings and tours, numerous scientific and technical briefings, intensive instruction in Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) systems, physiological training, ground school to prepare for T-38 flight training, as well as learning water and wilderness survival techniques. Completion of this training and evaluation qualified her for flight assignment as a mission specialist. In 1999, Caldwell Dyson was assigned to the Astronaut Office ISS Operations Branch as a Russian Crusader, participating in the testing and integration of Russian hardware and software products developed for ISS. In 2000, she was assigned prime crew support astronaut for the ISS Expedition 5 crew, serving as their representative on technical and operational issues throughout the training and on-orbit phase of their mission. During ISS Expeditions 4 through 6, Caldwell Dyson served as an ISS spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) inside Mission Control. In 2003, she made a transition to the Astronaut Shuttle Operations Branch and was assigned to flight software verification in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory and worked supporting launch and landing operations at Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Caldwell Dyson also served as Lead CAPCOM for Expedition 11.
Qingzhou (Chinese: 轻舟货运飞船; pinyin: Qīngzhōu huòyùn fēichuán) is a class of cargo spacecraft developed by CAS Space, a company founded by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. It is part of the China Manned Space Program's low-cost cargo transportation system designed to support the Tiangong space station. A prototype version of the Qingzhou spacecraft was successfully launched as the primary payload of the maiden flight of the Kinetica-2 (Lijian-2) rocket on 30 March 2026. The first production-standard spacecraft is expected to be ready for flight by late 2026.
=== Segmental vitiligo === SV differs in appearance, cause, and frequency of associated illnesses. It tends to affect areas of skin that are associated with dorsal roots from the spinal cord, is most often unilateral (affecting only one side of the body), tends to occur in youth, and stabilizes after a couple of years' progression. An autoimmune link, once believed not to characterize SV, has been discovered in recent research. SV is highly resistant to medical treatment. Surgeries such as cellular grafting can be effective, but not while the disorder is active.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== United States ==== In April 2020, The Hill reported that markets selling live animals were still operating in the United States and that animal rights activists were calling for the closure of such markets, in addition to their existing calls to close factory farms. Fresh food markets were common in New York City until refrigeration became commonplace in the 20th century. From the 1990s to 2020, the number of live animal markets in New York City nearly doubled. As of 2020, there are more than 80 markets in New York City that stock live animals and slaughter them on-demand for customers. They are mostly poultry markets located in outer-borough immigrant communities where they are culturally significant and pose low public health risks relative to wildlife markets and other types of exotic markets.
Frederick II eventually wrote his own treatise on falconry, the De arte venandi cum avibus, in which he related his ornithological observations and the results of the hunts and experiments his court enjoyed performing. Several early German and French scholars compiled old works and conducted new research on birds. These included Guillaume Rondelet, who described his observations in the Mediterranean, and Pierre Belon, who described the fish and birds that he had seen in France and the Levant. Belon's Book of Birds (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some 200 species. His comparison of the skeletons of humans and birds is considered as a landmark in comparative anatomy. Volcher Coiter (1534–1576), a Dutch anatomist, made detailed studies of the internal structures of birds and produced a classification of birds, De Differentiis Avium (around 1572), that was based on structure and habits. Konrad Gesner wrote the Vogelbuch and Icones avium omnium around 1557. Like Gesner, Ulisse Aldrovandi, an encyclopedic naturalist, began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII, which was published from 1599 to 1603. Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals, and his work included 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants, and animals, published in 363 volumes. His Ornithology alone covers 2000 pages and included such aspects as the chicken and poultry techniques. He used a number of traits including behaviour, particularly bathing and dusting, to classify bird groups.
In Australia, age-standardised survey data for 2018–19 showed First Nations adults were 2.8 times as likely as non-Indigenous adults to report having diabetes or high blood sugar (17% compared with 6.1%), with higher rates in remote areas. Socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with higher risk in many settings. A 2011 meta-analysis of 23 studies found that lower education, occupation and income were each associated with higher incidence of type 2 diabetes (relative risks of roughly 1.3 to 1.4), though data from low and middle income countries were limited. The relationship is less consistent elsewhere: a systematic review of studies in China found that lower education was probably associated with higher prevalence, but results for income and occupation were unclear, and the authors noted that studies in some rapidly developing low and middle income countries have found the opposite pattern. Patterns also differ between men and women and by region. In 2022, age-standardised prevalence was similar worldwide in women (13.9%) and men (14.3%), but was higher in men in most high-income western countries and higher in women in most of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean; treatment coverage was higher in women in most high-income western countries and Latin America and the Caribbean, and higher in men in most of sub-Saharan Africa.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a crystalline form of creatine that contains one water molecule per creatine molecule. The compound occurs naturally in muscle tissue and is also produced synthetically for research and consumer products. The monohydrate label describes the solid's hydration state.
Creatine monohydrate contains creatine, but the two terms are not strictly interchangeable. The monohydrate includes water in the crystal, while creatine refers to the base molecule. Other creatine forms pair the molecule with different acids or carriers.
Dietary creatine is found mainly in meat and fish. The human body also synthesizes creatine from amino acids in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas. The monohydrate powder used in products is manufactured rather than extracted directly from food.
It is a compound made of creatine bound to one water molecule. It appears as a white crystalline powder and is the most common solid form of creatine used in research and supplements.